Muykim Lim
Cambodian Education Forum
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Innovations and Challenges in Cambodian Education: Youth’s Perspectives
Edited by Kimkong Heng, Koemhong Sol, Sopheap Kaing, and Sereyrath Em
© Cambodian Education Forum 2023
Summary
Media has developed in many forms due to advanced technology. With the invention of the internet, people find it even easier to access media for information and entertainment. The pandemic has also heightened online platform usage significantly. As a result, media has become a powerful means to deliver messages to ever-growing media consumers. The effect of this media influence, particularly on youth, is a concern that requires our attention. Given this context, this chapter underscores the importance of media literacy education and strategies to promote it. The chapter first discusses the definition of media literacy and media literacy education. It then delineates four main reasons why media literacy education is crucial for media users, especially youth. The chapter also offers recommendations to relevant stakeholders to step up their involvement in promoting media literacy education in Cambodia.
Keywords: Media literacy; media literacy education; Cambodia
Introduction
Media has been with us for many decades and keeps developing as time passes. Without us realizing it, the media has ingrained itself into our daily lives, becoming an essential without which we cannot seem to live. According to Notre Dame of Maryland University ([NDMU], 2017), media is divided into two distinct categories: traditional media and new media. Traditional media refers to the forms of media that predate the invention of the internet (Rajendran & Thesinghraja, 2014). Traditional media manifests in many forms, such as newspapers, books, magazines, posters, billboards, radios, and televisions, among others. Conversely, “new media” refers to types of media discovered in the information age (NDMU, 2017). Some examples of new media are social media, podcasts, vlogs, e-books, websites, and video streaming services.
In the pre-internet era, one-way communication through traditional media was the primary source of disseminating information. This type of media is called one-way communication, for it flows directly from producers to consumers (Apuke, 2017). However, cutting-edge technology has given birth to new media, fostering two-way communication where consumers can also be creators. Additionally, some forms of traditional media, such as newspapers, magazines, books, and radios, have been made available online through websites or other online platforms. Consequently, consumers tend to get exposed to media more than they think due to the availability of information and the convenience of accessing it (Brussee & Hekman, 2009).
Given the profound influence of media on our lives and the inevitability of its constant presence, scholars and researchers have started to be concerned about the future of young generations in the digital age. The first media education was seen in France in the early 1920s due to the emergence of “the cinema club movement” (Fedorov, 2008, p. 57). For similar reasons, media education in Great Britain was developed around the 1930s (Fedorov, 2008). Fedorov (2008) also stated that the aim of these early media education efforts was to protect children from the potentially harmful influences of the media.
Although media education has existed for a long time, challenges remain. The media literacy education curriculum was not well developed. The outstanding issue was related to how to integrate media literacy education into the school curriculum (Fedorov, 2008). Later on, with the concerted efforts of scholars and researchers, media literacy education has spread worldwide (Hobbs, 2007). However, due to cultural differences and varying media influences across countries, various approaches to teaching media literacy have been customized and implemented based on the context of each country. In Cambodia, as per my observations, media literacy education seems to be very limited. It currently exists in the form of short courses in some universities, such as the Paññāsāstra University of Cambodia and the University of Puthisastra, and some media literacy training is run by non-governmental organizations (NGOs). The government, however, has yet to take serious action on this kind of education.
In light of this background, this chapter discusses media literacy education in Cambodia, focusing on the definition of media literacy and media literacy education, and the importance of media literacy education. The chapter also offers some suggestions for relevant stakeholders to promote media literacy education in Cambodia.
What is media literacy?
Media literacy remains a concept without an absolute definition, largely due to the unceasing evolution of the media landscape. According to Hobbs (2007, as cited in Chen, 2007, p. 90), media literacy was defined as “the process of accessing, critically analyzing media messages and creating messages using media tools.” Similarly, Livingstone (2004) defined media literacy as “the ability to access, analyze, evaluate and create messages across a variety of contexts” (p. 18). Rubin (1998) stated that “media literacy, then, is about understanding sources and technologies of communication, the codes that are used, the messages that are produced, and the selection, interpretation, and impact of those messages” (p. 3).
Although scholars and researchers have defined media literacy differently, two distinguished points frequently emerge in defining media literacy. They are “the awareness of the multitude of media messages and the critical ability in analyzing and questioning what we see, read, and watch” (Hobbs, 2007, as cited in Chen, 2007, p. 90). In this chapter, the term media literacy refers to the ability to access, analyze, evaluate, and create messages in any form of media. To help users be critical, some media literacy questions were created to bring awareness to users before they believe in what they see or read in the media. According to Meehan et al. (2015, p. 83), there are seven things that users should consider when they consume media, as shown in Table 9.1.
Table 9.1. Things to consider when consuming media
| Authorship | Who made this message? |
| Purpose | Why was this made? Who is the target audience (and how do you know)? |
| Economics | Who paid for this? |
| Impact | Who might benefit from this message? Who might be harmed by it? Why might this message matter to me? |
| Content | What is this about (and what makes you think that)? What ideas, values, information, and/or points of view are overt? Implied? What is left out of this message that might be important to know? |
| Technique | What techniques are used? Why are those techniques used? How do they communicate the message? |
| Credibility | Is this fact, opinion, or something else? How credible is this (and what makes you think that)? What are the sources of the information, ideas or assertions? |
By addressing these questions, users will transform from passive to active participants in media consumption. Instead of merely absorbing the information, they will use their critical thinking skills to analyze and evaluate the content they encounter, whether it be what they hear, see, or read.
What is media literacy education?
Since we are living in a society where almost everything is driven by the media, it is imperative to understand the nature of the media. One of the most effective ways to learn about media is through media literacy education. In general terms, media education is “the process of teaching and learning about the media” (Buckingham, 2003, p. 4). It aims to boost students’ perceptions toward media production, “how the media work, how they are organized, and how they construct reality” (Zhang et al., 2020, p. 57). Besides raising awareness of the media, Zhang et al. (2020) stated that other purposes of media literacy education are to help students to evaluate media messages in a critical manner, expand their involvement with media, and improve their creativity in producing media messages.
Achieving media literacy is not an innate skill like learning how to walk. To be media literate, one has to be properly taught. According to the Center for Media Literacy (Chen, 2007), there are five main reasons that media literacy education should be established.
First, there is a significant increase in media utilization. In an information society, media has become an important means of transmitting information to consumers. Given technological advancements, media exposure to people is seen almost everywhere, ranging from internet use to traditional media, such as billboards, posters, and flyers. Whether intentional or not, this exposure inevitably impacts us. Therefore, media literacy education is like a shield that can protect consumers from the harmful aspects of excessive media exposure.
Second, media has had a huge impact on our way of thinking (Chen, 2007). There are many possible ways to create content in the media and make people find it believable, especially when consumers are media illiterates or know very little about the media. For example, producers can use clickbait techniques to get people to click on links by creating compelling or misleading headlines. Also, information or news found in any type of media might not be reliable at all. Writers can express a negative or positive view on a subject to change the opinion of the audience. Consequently, if the readers are not critical enough, they can be convinced by what they read.
Third, as the media industries keep growing, knowing how to absorb information in this media-saturated society is crucial. As mentioned above, media consumers can be perceived using different techniques. At this stage, critical thinking skills–a 21st-century competency–are vital skills that one should possess. Before believing in a particular piece of information, we should properly investigate the sources of information because the contents of the media are published for a purpose. We can be critical by asking ourselves media literacy-related questions to help us learn about the intention of media production.
Fourth, media can help ‘democratic processes.’ Media is like a double-edged sword (Smith, 2016). It can be harmful or beneficial, depending on how it is used. However, if we receive media literacy education, we will be able to reap the most benefits from the media. Not only does media literacy education bring media awareness to us, but it also helps us to learn to express ourselves effectively through media. Moreover, as many rely on the media for information on politics, elections, and public regulations, media literacy education plays a pivotal role in sharing and shaping diverse global perspectives (Wan & Gut, 2008).
Lastly, the demand for online communication has been growing. Nowadays, the surge in the number of people using smartphones or the internet in Cambodia has been remarkable. Based on Chea (2021), from 2020 to 2021, the number of people using social media increased by 24 percent. By January 2021, the number of people using social media had reached 12 million, corresponding to 71 percent of the whole population. Chea (2021) also added that the sudden increase was mainly due to the COVID-19 pandemic, which has turned many platforms online. In addition, the study by Phong et al. (2016) with 2,000 participants reported that people accessed the internet for three main reasons: (1) pleasure (74.4%), (2) Cambodian news (33.2%), and (3) a variety of information (30.2%). Because of the passive consumption of media and the demand for using online platforms, it is crucial to ensure that people are media literate; otherwise, they will be easily influenced by the media.
The importance of media literacy education in Cambodia
Media is everywhere. It has already become part of our lives. Because of the rapid development of technology, media has evolved into many different forms. Therefore, it is quite dangerous to consume media with less knowledge of how it works. As a result, it is imperative for us to focus on media literacy education, which holds importance for four reasons.
Firstly, it safeguards students from falling prey to fraudulent activities. Amidst the initial stages of the pandemic, there was much misinformation on social media regarding the COVID-19 situation. The Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) in the United States has reported an uptick in fake news, privacy problems, and computer-related crimes (FBI, 2016). As we increasingly rely on online platforms, especially Facebook, to get information or learn about the world, it is quite risky to stay online without adequate knowledge about the media. Consequently, media literacy education can raise awareness among students to use media in a cautious manner for their safety on the internet. Additionally, media literacy education helps students to learn to critically evaluate media content. By fostering critical thinking, they can probe the underlying purposes of messages, so they will not easily believe in a person who tries to take advantage of them on the internet. For example, a university student who joined media and information literacy training at the Paññāsāstra University of Cambodia (PUC) in Siem Reap said, “I could understand the flow of information and identify the trustworthy sources and official pages, which are reliable. I also share the tips and knowledge with my friends and family” (Cambodia Center for Independent Media [CCIM], 2021a, para. 3).
Secondly, media literacy education can improve students’ lifestyles. It provides them with media-related knowledge about media operations and the influence of media messages, which often remain unnoticed. By understanding the purpose of media content, students will not be easily influenced by the media. As a result, they can become well-informed citizens. Moreover, based on the definition of media literacy, if one is media literate, he or she can create messages in various media formats, promoting his or her own voice. With this freedom in hand, we can also express ourselves better using media tools. Consequently, we need to learn about the media in order to avoid creating a message that might hurt other people. As a first-year student who joined media literacy training at PUC reported in an interview, “Back then, I used to share many posts on social media without checking or verifying the information, but now, I am more careful about the content I see on social media” (CCIM, 2021a, para. 4).
Thirdly, media literacy education stimulates students’ interest in learning. Unfortunately, Cambodian education has lagged behind technological development, with many schools still clinging to traditional ways of teaching and learning even though we are living in a digital world. Besides being a standalone subject, media literacy education can also be integrated into other subjects like literature, English language, or social studies. By integrating it into other subjects, not only do the students achieve the learning objectives, but they also learn important skills that can be applied to their daily lives. For example, if we teach present continuous tense in an English class, we can give a picture to the students and ask them to describe it. At the same time, we can ask some media-related questions, such as who might take the photo, what the intention was, what the picture might want to tell us, and how other people would interpret the message of the picture. Personalizing the lesson by using media to help the students learn about media literacy makes the lesson more intriguing because it relates to their daily lives.
Lastly, since media literacy education involves producing content or messages using media tools, it helps students be creative. By creating media, they will be able to understand more about how media works and its purposes, enabling them to produce valuable content for others and improve the overall media environment. For example, CCIM hosted a competition on social media aiming to promote responsible media use among Cambodian youth and encourage their active participation on social media (CCIM, 2021b). There were videos that showed how creative the students were in producing educational content for other users. The videos created by the students who had participated in the media literacy training can provide valuable messages to other users to learn about media, and the participants themselves can also learn how to create their own voice on the media.
How to promote media literacy education in Cambodia
In spite of the influence of the media on Cambodian people, especially among youth, media literacy education does not receive the attention it deserves. Short-term media literacy training programs are seen in some universities, such as the Paññāsāstra University of Cambodia and the University of Puthisastra. As a result, many schools in Phnom Penh and other provinces have not received training on media literacy due to the limited scope of the Media Information Literacy (MIL) project (CCIM, 2020). While NGOs are putting effort into promoting media literacy in Cambodia, there has been no significant action taken on educational levels in public schools. According to Benveniste et al. (2008), teaching in Cambodian public schools overuses instructional activities and recitation, with students spending a significant portion of their time copying lessons and receiving instructions, and less than half of the teachers engage students in questions that promote reasoning skills. This poses a major challenge to the development of media literacy education, requiring concerned stakeholders to put in more effort to address the remaining issues. The following are some suggestions for relevant stakeholders to promote media literacy education in Cambodia:
The government
The Cambodian government plays a crucial role in promoting media literacy education. The first step toward this goal is to provide funding to support media literacy education. The funding can be divided into three categories. A large proportion of the funding should be allocated toward researching media literacy education, given the absence of a universal curriculum and the need to adapt to regional variances. Therefore, much research is needed to explore students’ behaviors toward media consumption to understand how the study curriculum should be designed to fit the Cambodian context and to ensure the quality of teaching and learning. The second segment of the fund should incentivize researchers and scholars to work on designing study curricula and effective assessments so as to evaluate students’ knowledge about media literacy. The remaining portion of the fund should be used to advocate for media literacy education. For instance, the government could sponsor competitions that encourage youth to get involved in media in a positive way, such as creating videos that raise awareness of media messages, spotting fake news on social media, or showing techniques of how media convinces the audience to believe in what they see or read. Although the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS) has acknowledged the significance of “internet technology and web-based learning” and has built up “Information and Communication Technology (ICT)” (CCIM, 2020, p. 153), the lack of media literacy education is still evident. In a report by CCIM (2020, p. 153), one participant who was a university student confessed, “I have used a smartphone to access Facebook for years, but I never knew exactly what media information literacy was until I joined CCIM in late 2014.” This response illustrates the lack of media literacy awareness among youth. Therefore, the growth of media in Cambodia should not be neglected.
Educational institutions
Educational institutions can promote media literacy education in three ways. Firstly, they should institutionalize media literacy education as an extracurricular activity so that students across different disciplines can participate. To reinforce participation, educational institutions should make it a requirement. For instance, each student enrolls in at least one such activity per semester. Currently, only two universities, namely the Paññāsāstra University of Cambodia and the University of Puthisastra, run this program as an extracurricular activity. If more educational institutions incorporate media literacy education as their after-school activity, more students will be able to get access to media literacy training. Secondly, besides establishing extracurricular activities, schools should host educational video contests where students receiving media literacy education can join and learn to express themselves using media. The videos should be uploaded on the school website to enhance awareness and inspire other students. Lastly, student exchange programs, both at the national and international levels, can provide students with invaluable opportunities to learn from media literacy experts and share knowledge or experience with peers, thus facilitating a broader understanding and promotion of media literacy education.
Researchers and curriculum designers
Researchers play an important role in promoting media literacy education as they help unravel the nuances of media influence, especially on youth. Knowing what media is and which media has influenced consumers the most helps determine the definition of media literacy and what knowledge and skills one should have to be considered media literate. By knowing the criteria for being media literate, researchers and curriculum designers can craft a relevant and appropriate curriculum for students and teachers. Equally important is the assessment that we should not overlook. Media literacy skills cannot be measured by the traditional examination methods we usually use with other subjects. That is why researchers are encouraged to explore innovative assessment strategies to effectively measure and enhance media literacy in the classroom.
Academic staff or teachers
To promote media literacy education in Cambodia, teachers need to be well-trained. Otherwise, they might not be able to field unexpected questions from students. If teachers do not receive adequate training, they will just concentrate on “very basic use of media and basic assessment techniques” (Schilder et al., 2016, p. 40). Schiller et al. (2016) added that when a teacher lacks training, he/she will not be able to “move beyond the assessment of lower-order thinking skills” (p. 40). In other words, a teacher who lacks training will not be able to encourage students to analyze, evaluate, and create media messages effectively, and the assessment will primarily involve memorization. Moreover, due to the rapid development of media and the internet, teachers must stay abreast of current news and media trends to effectively connect students with contemporary societal events. Therefore, teachers have to receive sufficient training and keep themselves up-to-date so that they can teach and help promote media literacy education.
Conclusion
Media literacy skills are imperative for individuals in the 21st century, given the pervasive influence of the media, which profoundly affects consumers’ attitudes, perceptions, and behaviors. It is time to take action and focus on media literacy education. Media literacy education can help students become well-informed citizens and transform themselves from passive to active consumers. Media literacy education can also enhance the lifestyle of students, help them deal with cybercrime, foster creativity, and make them more interested in learning.
To promote media literacy education in Cambodia, each relevant stakeholder has an essential role to play. While the government has to provide financial support, raise awareness of media literacy, and encourage youth involvement in media, educational institutions should establish after-school curricula and exchange programs to bring attention to media literacy education and host educational video competitions to raise awareness of media influence. Meanwhile, researchers and curriculum designers must complete other tasks, such as exploring the nature of media, finding how it influences consumers, and designing effective study curricula and assessments. Additionally, teachers must be adequately trained to teach and help promote media literacy education.
Despite media literacy being a pressing topic in the 21st century, there seems to be a dearth of research on media literacy education in Cambodia. Therefore, to address this knowledge gap, researchers should pay more attention to this area. Potential research avenues may include determining whether media literacy should be a stand-alone subject or be integrated into other subjects, such as social studies, literature, or the English language. Research may also focus on assessments to measure students’ understanding of media literacy and evaluate the effectiveness of media course syllabi.
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