Sokleang Touch
Cambodian Education Forum
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Innovations and Challenges in Cambodian Education: Youth’s Perspectives
Edited by Kimkong Heng, Koemhong Sol, Sopheap Kaing, and Sereyrath Em
© Cambodian Education Forum 2023
Summary
Students are different, so they cannot be taught using a one-size-fits-all method. Since different students have different knowledge, backgrounds, learning styles, preferences, needs, and readiness levels, the employment of differentiated instruction, a teaching approach focusing on learners’ unique differences and involving the use of various strategies, can ensure that all students are able to progress at their own pace and achieve their full potential. This chapter elucidates the concept of differentiated instruction and its benefits in English language classrooms. It also presents some strategies that teachers can use to cater to their students’ diverse learning needs. Lastly, it provides recommendations to support Cambodian secondary school teachers in implementing differentiated instruction in their English language classrooms before ending with a conclusion.
Keywords: Differentiated instruction; teaching strategies; English language classes; secondary schools; Cambodia
Introduction
It is unlikely to dress everyone in one-size-fits-all clothing due to differences in shape and size. Of course, the one-size-fits-all design might allow anyone to wear it, but that would inevitably result in ill-fitting garments that are too tight or too loose for different individuals. Therefore, it is essential to consider a range of sizes and styles that cater to diverse body types to ensure that everyone can find clothing that fits well and feels comfortable. Likewise, in a classroom, students have different learning preferences, understandings, backgrounds, experiences, and needs, so it is significant for teachers to take student differences into account and find effective methods to teach them (Heacox, 2002; Hordiienko & Lomakina, 2015; Shareefa et al., 2019).
Hedge (2000) pointed out that students do not have the same cognitive and linguistic knowledge. Students exhibit a wide range of abilities, needs, and experiences in the classroom, with some demonstrating rapid acquisition of knowledge while others require more time to grasp concepts (Adami, 2004). Thus, it must be challenging for teachers to teach classrooms with a wide variety of abilities (Tomlinson, 2001). For example, fast learners may find the material dull and lose motivation if the material is not challenging enough, while slow learners may struggle with the content and require more teacher support (Zakarneh et al., 2020). Hordiienko and Lomakina (2015) found that teachers find it challenging to balance the needs of weak, average, and fast learners because weak students often experience low motivation and inferiority complexes, which have a negative impact on their engagement in class. In English language classrooms, where English is taught as a foreign language, it is common for students to have limited language skills and background knowledge. However, schools should strive to be inclusive learning environments where all learners can benefit from education, regardless of their learning pace (Diana, 2004).
Since all learners are unique, teaching must also be differentiated (Adami, 2004). It is, therefore, essential to implement differentiation in the classroom, as it helps teachers create a supportive and inclusive environment while promoting individualized learning (Adami, 2004; Nicolae, 2014; Siyabi & Shekaili, 2021; Zakarneh et al., 2020). According to Moosa and Shareefa (2019), there was a significant connection between teachers’ understanding of differentiated instruction and its successful practices in the classroom. Meanwhile, Nicolae (2014) found that some teachers may not use the right method of differentiation or lack the necessary skills to implement it effectively. Therefore, it is crucial for teachers to be knowledgeable about the differentiated teaching approach and acquire the necessary skills for successful implementation in their classrooms.
In the context of Cambodia, a case study of the English subject in a lower secondary school revealed that English language teachers often faced classrooms with mixed-ability students (Sun, 2019). Those teachers pointed out that relying solely on the textbook was not effective as it failed to cater to the diverse levels of students, and some students even became disinterested in class (Sun, 2019). This issue was further supported by Em’s (2022) research, which examined the challenges of English language teaching and learning in a Cambodian high school. Em (2022) found that large class sizes, often consisting of around 40 students, made it difficult for teachers to teach a heterogeneous class effectively. As a result, teachers tended to rely on lecture-based teaching methods for most of their instruction.
There is ongoing research into effective instructional strategies for mixed-ability classrooms, with varying conclusions. One approach is ability grouping which has been found to have a significant influence on students’ learning and enable teachers to design tailored strategies and materials (Khazaeenezhad et al., 2012). However, studies by Betts and Shkolnik (2000) and Trinidad and King (2021) suggested that ability grouping may exacerbate educational inequality, with high-ability students doing better and slow learners falling behind. Meanwhile, various studies have proven the positive impact of differentiated instruction on students’ learning (Adami, 2004; Nicolae, 2014; Siyabi & Shekaili, 2021; Zakarneh et al., 2020). However, not many teachers are aware of it; some are familiar with the idea but do not practice it in their classrooms (Nicolae, 2014; Onyishi & Sefotho, 2020).
Against this background, this chapter first defines differentiated instruction and highlights its benefits in English language classrooms. The chapter then presents some differentiated strategies that teachers can employ in their classrooms to tailor instruction to meet the diverse learning needs of their students. Finally, the chapter offers some recommendations to support Cambodian secondary school teachers in implementing differentiated instruction in their English language classrooms.
Defining differentiated instruction
Differentiated instruction is not a new phenomenon. It has been a prevalent practice in education for many years. Furthermore, due to the increasing diversity of students in classrooms, it has become a crucial concern in educational research and policy (Ruys et al., 2013; Sapan & Mede, 2022). According to Tomlinson (2001), differentiated instruction refers to a teaching approach that emphasizes learner differences and is centered around their needs, meaning that teaching must be engaging, interesting, and relevant to students. To differentiate is to provide the class with a variety of teaching and learning methods by offering students tasks that mirror their learning abilities and styles (Bushie, 2015). In contrast to the one-size-fits-all approach, differentiated instruction takes into account all differences among students in the same class (Nicolae, 2014; Sapan & Mede, 2022). As Tomlinson (2001) rightly pointed out, teachers must consider both the needs of advanced and struggling learners since both types of students need support for their own development. Tomlinson (2001) suggested that one effective way of differentiating instruction is through flexible grouping, where teachers can use various group work arrangements to ensure that all students are challenged appropriately. Assessment is also the basis of differentiated instruction and has various forms. It occurs not just during or at the end of the lesson but also before the session. Whole-class, small-group, and individualized instruction are all facets of differentiated instruction (Tomlinson, 2001).
Benefits of differentiated instruction in English language classrooms
Differentiated instruction, as described by Heacox (2002), is an effective approach to addressing and managing the diverse learning of students in the classroom. It motivates students to learn by involving them in activities that are tailored to their needs, strengths, and preferences. For instance, a study by Karadag and Yasar (2010) found that Turkish students had a positive attitude toward differentiated instruction and enjoyed the experience more than traditional, one-method teaching. In addition, differentiated instruction has been shown to have several other benefits. Bushie (2015), Chen and Chen (2018), and Sapan and Mede (2022) have all noted that employing differentiated instruction in the classroom can help students achieve more, increase their motivation to learn, and promote their learning autonomy. Furthermore, differentiated instruction can create a caring, safe, and welcoming learning atmosphere for students.
Kotob and Abadi (2019) conducted an experimental study to examine the influence of differentiated instruction on the academic achievement of students in mixed-ability classrooms. The study revealed that the scores of low-performing students had improved following the implementation of differentiated instruction. Similarly, a study by Abdullah et al. (2014) investigated the effect of differentiated learning methods on students’ writing skills when learning Arabic as a foreign language. The results indicated that the students who were taught with differentiated instruction outperformed their peers who did not receive differentiated instruction. These findings suggested that differentiated instruction could be an effective approach to improving the academic performance of students.
Some strategies to differentiate instruction
According to Tomlinson (2001), teachers must proactively plan and execute diverse strategies to cater to differences in students’ readiness, interest, and learning needs regarding “content, process, and product”(p. 17). This means that teachers must consider all three elements, such as content, process, and product, when seeking to differentiate their classroom instruction.
Content refers to knowledge, concepts, and skills that learners must absorb in accordance with the curriculum (Tomlinson, 2001; Tomlinson & Moon, 2013). It encompasses what students need to study and the resources that they use to study. Content can be materials developed in the curriculum and determined by schools or national standards (Heacox, 2002). Bell (2011) pointed out that differentiating the content is not about providing entirely different instruction and varying student outcomes. It is more about identifying a variety of strategies and resources to help students succeed.
Process, on the other hand, refers to the activities that students need to do in order to understand and make sense of the material (Heacox, 2002). Differentiated tasks can be used to tailor the learning process to individual learners’ preferences and strengths. For example, visual learners may benefit from activities that involve drawing pictures, while auditory learners may find it helpful to explain the advantages and disadvantages of a topic (Cárdenas-Sanchez et al., 2019).
Product is a form of assessment used to ensure that students are able to demonstrate their ability or show what they have learned from the content and through the process (Corley, 2005). According to Ferlazzo (2018), products can take various forms, not just essays or multiple-choice questions. Teachers can differentiate the products by using a range of activities, such as writing reports, creating brochures, participating in debates, or engaging in role plays (Cárdenas-Sanchez et al., 2019).
Content differentiation
Basically, content refers to what students will learn in the classroom. To differentiate the content is to teach up. Teaching up requires teachers to keep the curriculum or syllabus on the high end and to offer scaffolding to students who need extra assistance with the more difficult lessons (Breen, 2019). To ensure effective teaching, teachers must have a deep understanding of their students’ learning profiles, particularly those who may be struggling. By identifying each student’s strengths and weaknesses, teachers can tailor tasks and activities to help struggling students build the skills and knowledge they need to succeed.
- Know students’ learning profiles: Learning profiles or learning needs refer to learners’ individual characteristics, learning environments, and styles that influence their learning (Kamarulzaman et al., 2017). According to Heacox (2002), teachers should consider different aspects. One crucial aspect of learning profiles is the physical environment, which includes the classroom’s layout, temperature, lighting, and seating arrangements. Additionally, students have different preferences for working, such as alone, in pairs, or in groups. By understanding their preferences and needs, teachers can choose instructional strategies and approaches that are aligned with their learning styles and interests, resulting in more effective learning experiences (Tomlinson, 2012). In short, it involves thoughtful instructional planning that caters to each student’s learning profile to ensure that all students can achieve their full potential.
- Know students’ learning interests: Aside from readiness, interest is another essential component of differentiated learning (Tomlinson, 2001; Tomlinson & Moon, 2013). Teachers can increase students’ interest by showing them how the material they are studying is connected with their interests. By doing so, teachers can motivate students to stay focused and engaged, so teachers should incorporate fun and enjoyable lessons or activities into the classroom (Kamarulzaman et al., 2017).
- Use of pre-tests or diagnostic tests: Before differentiating the content, teachers can use a pre-test or diagnostic test, as recommended by the Department of Education & Communities (2015). A pre-test is a tool used to evaluate students’ readiness and abilities, allowing teachers to adjust their instructional materials accordingly (Berry, 2008). Readiness is the level of being ready to study the content, experience the process, and produce the product. To ensure that students are adequately prepared, teachers must identify any knowledge gaps or misconceptions and tailor their instruction accordingly (Heacox, 2002).
- KWL: KWL stands for what I already know, what I want to know, and what I have learned about a particular topic (Satria & Syafei, 2019). It is a graphic organizer that helps teachers assess students’ understanding and prior knowledge before teaching the content. Instead of starting with the content immediately, teachers can give students three pieces of sticker notes with different colors indicating each KWL. Then students can stick those papers on the flipchart or whiteboard after finishing writing their answers. This will help teachers be aware of their knowledge gap.
- Hands-on learning: Teachers can differentiate the content by arranging various subtopics within the main topic and including a variety of texts or materials for students to learn. In addition, planning hands-on exercises or activities for some learners is also suggested, as it is an effective strategy that benefits both quick finishers and high-ability learners (Joseph et al., 2013).
Process differentiation
To differentiate the process, teachers are encouraged to utilize different types
of tasks for students to practice, such as tiered assignments, scaffolding, flexible grouping, work arrangements, adjusted questioning, and cooperative learning.
- Tiered assignments: Teachers can implement process differentiation by using tiered assignments, which involve providing varying levels of tasks for students based on their readiness or learning profile. Teachers can use Bloom’s Taxonomy to guide them when developing various tasks for students, as it provides a framework of six levels of learning, ranging from remembering to creating (Heacox, 2002). For example, teachers should design activities that focus on knowledge or comprehension for slow learners while asking advanced learners to do higher-level tasks like application, analysis, or evaluation. In order to support struggling students, teachers should provide them with easily accessible materials while offering challenging resources to advanced learners so that they can build their skills and remain engaged (Heacox, 2002; Tomlinson, 2001).
- Scaffolding: Providing scaffolding is essential to support all students effectively. As every student has a unique learning style and pace, teachers need to adjust the level of support they offer (Joseph et al., 2013). This means that teachers should provide additional guidance and assistance to struggling students while allowing advanced students the freedom to work independently and seek help when needed. By doing so, teachers can help all students achieve their full potential and feel supported in their learning journey.
- Flexible grouping: Flexible grouping is another strategy for process differentiation. According to Corley (2005), flexible grouping involves organizing students into groups based on their interests, readiness, and learning profiles. However, this approach does not necessitate that teachers group students based on all three criteria consistently and simultaneously. Rather, the decision to group students flexibly depends on factors such as the learning content, the level of flexibility desired, and the instructional goals. By utilizing flexible grouping, teachers can better tailor instruction to the diverse learning needs of their students.
- Work arrangements: To differentiate the process, teachers may consider the work arrangement method. This method involves assigning tasks to students to work alone, in pairs, or in groups (Department of Education & Communities, 2015; Corley, 2005). Although working alone may not be suitable for slow learners who require more support, it allows medium and fast learners to be more independent in their learning. Pair work, on the other hand, is a part of the cooperative learning approach that allows two learners to work together to achieve a given task. According to Mulya (2016), pair work helps students advance their understanding more than working alone. It can also create a friendly space for students to work with their peers, divide the responsibilities, and avoid bearing the whole weight of the tasks.
- Adjusted questioning: Teachers should ask questions that are appropriate for their students’ abilities because questioning is crucial in fostering students’ knowledge (Bibi et al., 2020). This means that teachers must know the right question levels for fast learners and slow learners. Bloom’s Taxonomy provides a useful framework for determining these levels, with six domains of questions ranging from knowledge to evaluation. Low-level thinking questions are focused on understanding basic concepts, while high-level thinking questions require more complex reasoning and synthesis (Shanmugavelu et al., 2020). To encourage weak students to learn and stimulate their minds, teachers should provide simple questions that are within their grasp. On the other hand, teachers can tailor their challenging questions to high-achieving students.
- Cooperative learning: According to Jacobs et al. (2008), cooperative learning is a learning approach involving students working together to enhance both individual and group learning outcomes. Teachers should organize students to work in heterogeneous groups consisting of both slow and fast learners, which can foster more interaction as well as positive interdependence. Peer tutoring, in addition, is a key component of cooperative learning. It is a strategy in which students take on the roles of tutor and tutee. Teachers typically place struggling students in peer groups with more advanced learners who serve as tutors, offering guidance, explanation, and demonstration to their peers (Suranjana et al., 2015). This helps underachieving students feel more comfortable, reinforces their self-esteem, and boosts their confidence. It also benefits advanced learners, as peer tutoring allows them to reinforce their knowledge, build self-confidence, and develop a sense of responsibility and contribution to their classmates (Srivastava & Rashid, 2018). In the meantime, tutees are more motivated to study and better understand the lesson through the grounded support provided by their tutors.
Product or assessment differentiation
Assessment has undergone a significant shift in its purpose and approach over the years. Traditionally, assessment was mainly used to determine student placement, assign grades, and facilitate student progression to the next level. However, in recent times, assessment has evolved into a tool for observing and analyzing student learning, including academic strengths and weaknesses, interests, and learning preferences. The information gathered through assessment is used to make decisions that benefit teachers’ teaching practices and students’ learning outcomes (Moon, 2010). There are two types of assessments: formative and summative (Dixson & Worrell, 2016; Tomlinson, 2012). Formative assessment comprises pre-assessment, which assesses students’ prior knowledge and readiness, and ongoing assessment, which monitors student progress and provides feedback to enhance learning. In contrast, summative assessment is conducted at the end of the learning process in the form of midterm, semester, or final exams. Its purpose is to evaluate students’ mastery of the course material.
Differentiating products or assessments is about providing students with choices to showcase their understanding based on their learning profiles and preferences. Therefore, teachers need to use a wide variety of assessments, for example, writing, speaking, listening, role-playing, or creating graphic organizers (Cárdenas-Sanchez et al., 2019; Ferlazzo, 2018; Weselby, 2014).
Conclusion and recommendations
Differentiated instruction is a teaching method that enables teachers to create an inclusive classroom where all students, regardless of their ability level, have an equal opportunity to learn and improve themselves. To effectively differentiate instruction, teachers have to take a number of factors into consideration, including content, process, product, and learner differences such as interest, readiness, and learning profiles. This teaching method requires significant effort and commitment from teachers, as they must carefully plan and implement a variety of activities and strategies to meet the diverse needs of their students. Although challenging, the rewards of differentiated instruction are immeasurable, as it can inspire and motivate students to take ownership of their learning and reach their full potential.
To support the implementation of differentiated instruction in English language classes in Cambodian secondary schools, the following recommendations should be taken into account:
Firstly, a clear understanding of the needs and abilities of each student is important. This requires teachers to have pre-assessments and ongoing assessments to monitor student progress, which enables teachers to identify the readiness level of their students, as well as their strengths and areas that need reinforcement to help them progress. Such information will allow teachers to choose differentiated techniques that are appropriate for their students.
Secondly, flexible classroom management is crucial to meet the needs of diverse students. This includes the ability to adjust instruction and activities to cater to students’ needs. It is also crucial for teachers to incorporate a wide range of instructional materials and resources, such as technology, books, manipulatives, and other materials that can be utilized to facilitate learning for students at different levels.
Thirdly, despite the importance of differentiated instruction, it is not easy for teachers to practice it. Therefore, ongoing professional development is needed. They need regular training and support to cultivate the skills and knowledge necessary to implement differentiated instruction effectively.
Fourthly, the success of differentiated instruction does not solely depend on teachers. In fact, it also requires support from the administration and school leadership. Therefore, school leaders should provide adequate resources, support, and opportunities for the ongoing professional development of teachers so that they can succeed in implementing differentiated instruction in their classrooms.
Lastly, because differentiated instruction is not a one-size-fits-all approach, there must be a willingness to change. This means that teachers must be willing to adapt and change their instructional strategies and activities based on the needs of their students. It is also imperative to create a positive classroom culture that values diversity and fosters a sense of belonging for all students.
References
Abdullah, N., Roslan, S., Abdullah, M. C., & HajiMaming, P. (2014). The effect of differentiated learning method on students’ achievement in writing skills in learning Arabic as a foreign language. International Journal of Research in Education Methodology, 6(2), 889-895. https://doi.org/10.24297/ijrem.v6i2.3884
Adami, A. F. (2004). Enhancing students’ learning through differentiated approaches to teaching and learning: A Maltese perspective. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs, 4(2), 91-97. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1471-3802.2004.00023.x
Bell, L. (2011). Faculty conversation: Carol Tomlinson on differentiation. The University of Virginia. https://education.virginia.edu/news-stories/faculty-conversation-carol-tomlinson-differentiation
Berry, T. (2008). Pre-test assessment. American Journal of Business Education, 1(1), 19-22. https://doi.org/10.19030/ajbe.v1i1.4633
Betts, J. R., & Shkolnik, J. L. (2000). The effects of ability grouping on student achievement and resource allocation in secondary schools. Economics of Education Review, 19(1), 1-15. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0272-7757(98)00044-2
Bibi, W., Butt, M., & Reba, A. (2020). Relating teachers’ questioning techniques with students’ learning within the context of Bloom’s taxonomy. Social Science, 14(1), 111-119. https://www.proquest.com/docview/2416521076
Breen, A. (2019). Renowned educator and scholar Carol Tomlinson defined a new way of teaching. The University of Virginia. https://education.virginia.edu/news-stories/renowned-educator-and-scholar-carol-tomlinson-defined-new-way-teaching
Bushie, C. (2015). Differentiation in education. BU Journal of Graduate Studies in Education, 7(2), 35-42. http://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1230703.pdf
Cárdenas-Sanchez, S. E., Ochoa-Jarrín, I. L., & Morales-Rodas, L. Y. (2019). Differentiated instruction in English classes in the universities of Ecuador: From the theory to practice. Polo del Conocimiento, 5(1), 608-621. https://doi.org/10.23857/pc.v5i01.1240
Chen, J.-H., & Chen, Y.-C. (2018). Differentiated instruction in a calculus curriculum for college students in Taiwan. Journal of Education and Learning, 7(1), 88-95. https://doi.org/10.5539/jel.v7n1p88
Corley, M. A. (2005). Differentiated instruction: Adjusting to the needs of all learners. Focus on the Basics, 7(C), 13-15.
Department of Education and Communities. (2015). Differentiating content, process, product, and learning environment. https://www.tcss.net/cms/lib/AL01001644/Centricity/Domain/4434/Article%20version%202.pdf
Diana, L. B. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Inclusive strategies for standards-based learning that benefit the whole class. American Secondary Education, 3(32), 34-62. https://www.jstor.org/stable/41064522
Dixson, D. D., & Worrell, F. C. (2016). Formative and summative assessment in the classroom. Theory into Practice, 55(2), 153-159. https://doi.org/10.1080/00405841.2016.1148989
Em, S. (2022). Challenges of English language learning and teaching in Cambodia: A case study of Kith Meng Brasat High School. Cambodian Journal of Educational Research, 2(1), 62-80. https://cefcambodia.com/2022/08/31/challenges-of-english-language-learning-and-teaching-in-cambodia-a-case-study-of-kith-meng-brasat-high-school/
Ferlazzo, L. (2018). Differentiating instruction: It’s not as hard as you think [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/h7-D3gi2lL8
Heacox, D. (2002). Differentiating instruction in the regular classroom: How to reach and teach all learners. Free Spirit Publishing.
Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and learning in the language classroom. Oxford University Press.
Hordiienko, N. M., & Lomakina, L. V. (2015). Teaching EFL to mixed-ability classes: Strategies, challenges, and solutions. Advanced Education, 3, 39-43. https://doi.org/10.20535/2410-8286.44198
Jacobs, G. M., Wang, A., Li, X., & Xie, Y. (2008). Making thinking audible and visible via cooperative learning. In M. H. Chau & T. Kerry (Eds.), International perspectives on education (pp. 103-117). Bloomsbury Publishing.
Joseph, S., Thomas, M., Simonette, G., & Ramsook, L. (2013). The impact of differentiated instruction in a teacher education setting: Successes and challenges International Journal of Higher Education, 2(3), 28-40. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v2n3p28
Kamarulzaman, M., Azman, H., & Zahidi, A. (2017). Differentiated instruction strategies in English language teaching for gifted students Journal of Applied Environmental and Biological Sciences, 7(1), 78-90.
Karadag, R., & Yasar, S. (2010). Effects of differentiated instruction on students’ attitudes towards Turkish courses: An action research. Procedia Social and Behavioral Sciences, 9, 1394-1399. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.12.340
Khazaeenezhad, B., Barati, H., & Jafarzade, M. (2012). Ability grouping as a way towards more academic success in teaching EFL – A case of Iranian undergraduates. English Language Teaching, 5(7), 81-89. https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v5n7p81
Kotob, M. M., & Abadi, M. A. (2019). The influence of differentiated instruction on academic achievement of students in mixed ability classroom. International Linguistics Research, 2(2), 8-28. https://doi.org/10.30560/ilr.v2n2p8
Moon, T. R. (2010). The role of assessment in differentiation. Theory into Practice, 44(3), 226-233. https://doi.org/10.1207/s15430421tip4403_7
Moosa, V., & Shareefa, M. (2019). Implementation of differentiated instruction: Conjoint effect of teachers’ sense of efficacy, perception, and knowledge. Anatolian Journal of Education, 4(1), 23-38. https://doi.org/10.29333/aje.2019.413a
Mulya, R. (2016). Teaching speaking by applying pair work techniques. English Education Journal, 7(1), 74-84. https://jurnal.usk.ac.id/EEJ/article/view/3162/0
Nicolae, M. (2014). Teachers’ beliefs as the differentiated instruction starting point: Research basis. Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 128, 426-431. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2014.03.182
Onyishi, C. N., & Sefotho, M. M. (2020). Teachers’ perspectives on the use of differentiated instruction in inclusive classrooms: Implication for teacher education. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(6), 136-150. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n6p136
Ruys, I., Defruyt, S., Rots, I., & Aelterman, A. (2013). Differentiated instruction in teacher education: A case study of congruent teaching. Teachers and Teaching, 19(1), 93-107. https://doi.org/10.1080/13540602.2013.744201
Sapan, M., & Mede, E. (2022). The effects of differentiated instruction (DI) on achievement, motivation, and autonomy among English learners. Iranian Journal of Language Teaching Research, 10(1), 127-144. https://doi.org/10.30466/ijltr.2022.121125
Satria, M., & Syafei, A. F. R. (2019). Enhancing students’ reading comprehension of scientific text by using KWL charts for senior high school. English Language Teaching, 8(4), 484-495. https://doi.org/10.24036/jelt.v8i4.106470
Shanmugavelu, G., Ariffin, K., Vadivelu, M., Mahayudin, Z., & Sundaram, R. K. (2020). Questioning techniques and teachers’ role in the classroom. International Journal of Education, 8(4), 45-49. https://doi.org/10.34293/education.v8i4.3260
Shareefa, M., Moosa, V., Zin, R. M., Abdullah, N. Z. M., & Jawawi, R. (2019). Teachers’ perceptions on differentiated instruction: Do experience, qualification, and challenges matter? International Journal of Learning, Teaching and Educational Research, 18(8), 214-226. https://doi.org/10.26803/ijlter.18.8.13
Siyabi, M. S. A., & Shekaili, D. A. A. (2021). Teachers’ perceptions of customizing students’ learning through differentiated instruction at a tertiary level. Arab World English Journal, 12(1), 374-387. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/vol12no1.25
Srivastav, R., & Rashid, M. (2018). Who is at edge – tutors or tutees? Academic, social and emotional elevation through peer tutoring. Arab World English Journal ((AWEJ) Proceedings of 1st MEC TESOL Conference 2018. https://dx.doi.org/10.24093/awej/MEC1.5
Sun, S. (2019). A case study evaluation of the curriculum of English subject for a lower secondary school in Cambodia. American International Journal of Social Science, 8(1), 78-89. https://doi.org/10.30845/aijss.v8n1p11
Suranjana, R.A., Ujjani, R., & Kanti, R.M. (2015). Peer tutoring as a remedial measure for slow learners in a medical school. Journal of Krishna Institute of Medical Sciences University, 4(1), 130–134.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2001). How to differentiate instruction in mixed-ability classrooms (2nd ed.). Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Tomlinson, C. A. (2012, February 1). Teach up for excellence. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/teach-up-for-excellence
Tomlinson, C. A., & Moon, T. R. (2013). Assessment and student success in a differentiated classroom. Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.
Trinidad, J. E. R., & King, R. B. (2021). Ability grouping predicts inequality, not achievement gains in Philippine schools: Findings from PISA 2018. Educational Research for Policy and Practice, 21, 305-322. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10671-021-09307-8
Weselby, C. (2014). What is differentiated instruction? Examples of how to differentiate instruction in the classroom. Concordia Online Education. https://mercury.educ.kent.edu/trc/files/Differentiation/What%20is%20Differentiated%20Instruction%20Examples%20of%20How%20to%20Differentiate%20Instructio.pdf Zakarneh, B., Al-Ramahi, N., & Mahmoud, M. (2020). Challenges of teaching English language classes of slow and fast learners in the United Arab Emirates universities. International Journal of Higher Education, 9(1), 256-269. https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n1p256
Cambodian Education Forum 