Kimkong Heng
Cambodian Education Forum
Phnom Penh, Cambodia
Koemhong Sol
International Christian University
Tokyo, Japan
Innovations and Challenges in Cambodian Education: Youth’s Perspectives
Edited by Kimkong Heng, Koemhong Sol, Sopheap Kaing, and Sereyrath Em
© Cambodian Education Forum 2023
Summary
This introductory chapter provides a brief overview of the recent developments and persistent challenges that have affected the Cambodian education system. The chapter highlights key developments that have recently been discussed in the literature on Cambodia’s general and higher education. It also briefly discusses the key challenges facing both sub-sectors. The chapter concludes by describing the organization of this book, introducing each of the 14 chapters included in it.
Introduction
Cambodia’s education system has undergone a remarkable transformation thanks to considerable efforts by the Cambodian government and concerned stakeholders. In general education, there has been improvement across the sub-sector. For example, there have been efforts to improve the quality of teachers and school principals as well as educational infrastructure. The Royal Government of Cambodia (RGC), through the Ministry of Education, Youth and Sport (MoEYS), has introduced several projects (e.g., Secondary Education Improvement Project and General Education Improvement Project) to improve the general education sub-sector (see Heng & Sol, 2022; Tao & Kao, 2023). In 2014, a major reform to the Grade 12 national examination was introduced to combat corruption and cheating during exams (Bredenberg, 2022). In 2016, another reform to general education was undertaken; that is, the introduction of a school improvement initiative known as the New Generation Schools. This important initiative aims to create a new model of public schools in Cambodia to improve the quality of general education (Bredenberg, 2022).
For higher education, there are also noticeable developments, particularly in terms of institutional expansion and access. Although the quality of higher education remains a concern, new developments have been observed (see Heng, 2023; Sok & Bunry, 2023). For instance, there have been improvements in terms of access to higher education, student assessment, and curriculum management (Sok & Bunry, 2023). There have also been new projects and initiatives introduced to improve the sub-sector, as well as the establishment of new research conferences and academic journals to promote research in Cambodian higher education (Heng, 2023).
Despite the recent developments, reforms to the education system, particularly higher education, have been called for (Heng, 2021; Heng & Sol, 2023a). For example, Heng (2021) raised the issue of limited research engagement among Cambodian academics as well as limited research output by Cambodian universities. To address these concerns, he proposed a reform to Cambodian higher education by focusing on three key aspects: “research policies, institutional support for research, and university orientation” (p. 70). Likewise, Heng and Sol (2023a) also put forward some ideas for higher education reform, emphasizing various areas, including infrastructure, curriculum, remuneration systems, continuous professional development (CPD), research, and quality assurance.
A review of the literature on Cambodian education shows that there is a growing amount of research discussing the challenges to the development of the education system in Cambodia. Recent book-length works, such as those of Khieng et al. (2015), Kitamura et al. (2016), Eam et al. (2022), Heng et al. (2022b), McNamara and Hayden (2022), and Symaco and Hayden (2024), have provided invaluable insights into the current state of development as well as the challenges facing Cambodian education. The present book aims to contribute to the existing literature on Cambodian education from the perspectives of Cambodian youth who are university students or recent university graduates.
In this introductory chapter, the aim is to discuss new developments and persistent challenges in the Cambodian education system. The discussion will be limited to major developments and challenges that have been discussed in recent literature. Thus, this chapter, drawing on secondary sources, contributes to the existing and growing body of work on Cambodia’s education system. It begins with a brief historical account of Cambodia’s education system. It then discusses the developments and remaining challenges facing the system, particularly general and higher education. The chapter concludes with an overview of all 14 chapters included in this edited volume.
Cambodia’s education system: A brief historical account
According to McNamara and Hayden (2022), Cambodia has a tragic past. After a brief period of socioeconomic development following its independence from France in 1953, Cambodia plunged into political instability in the early 1970s, after which the country experienced one of the world’s worst tragedies in the 20th century, the Khmer Rouge. After the collapse of the Khmer Rouge regime (1975-1979) that killed one-quarter of the Cambodian population, Cambodia had to start from scratch to rebuild itself, including its education system (McNamara & Hayden, 2022). During the genocide of the Khmer Rouge, Cambodia’s education system was completely dismantled. Educational infrastructure was destroyed or used for non-educational purposes, while teachers and other educated Cambodians were targeted for execution (Ayres, 2000). It was estimated that 75% of the teaching force died during the Khmer Rouge regime (Clayton, 1998). It was only in the early 1990s that Cambodia started to witness significant social and national development. This change came largely due to the intervention of the United Nations, which organized Cambodia’s first national elections in 1993 in its efforts to bring peace and nation-building to Cambodia after the prolonged civil war in the preceding decades (McNamara & Hayden, 2022).
Throughout the 2000s and 2010s, there have been a lot of improvements, particularly in quantitative aspects, in Cambodia’s education system. One of the significant achievements is the surge in student enrollment. As McNamara and Hayden (2022) noted, enrollment in primary education rose to 92.4% in 2018, although enrollment in lower and upper secondary schools in the same year remained relatively low, at 61.1% and 31.2%, respectively. Gross enrollment in higher education has also increased over the decades but remained low (less than 15%) throughout the 2010s, which is significantly lower than that of its counterparts in the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (Lim et al., 2023).
According to MoEYS (2023), over the past decade (2013-2022), there has been significant progress in terms of educational infrastructure development, student enrollment, and education access. For instance, the number of kindergarten and general education schools has increased from 14,852 in the 2013-2014 academic year to 18,830 in the 2022-2023 academic year. The number of HEIs has also increased from 110 in the 2013-2014 academic year to 132 in the 2021-2022 academic year. Likewise, the number of education staff has increased from 112,704 in 2013 to 125,597 in 2022.
Cambodia’s education system: Current structure
Cambodia’s current education system is divided into four major streams: (a) pre-primary education or early childhood education, (b) general education, (c) technical and vocational education and training (TVET), and (d) higher education (Tao & Kao, 2023). Pre-primary education caters to children aged three to five and is provided at three distinct types of preschools: public, private, and community-based (Om, 2022). Following that, general education follows the 6+3+3 structure, comprising six years of primary education (Grades 1-6), three years of lower secondary education (Grades 7-9), and another three years of upper secondary education (Grades 10-12). A combination of primary and lower secondary education (Grades 1-9) constitutes the country’s compulsory basic education (UNESCO, 2008). After completing lower secondary education, students can either advance to regular upper secondary education or enroll in secondary-level TVET programs to qualify for TVET certificate types C1, C2, and C3 (Tao & Kao, 2023). Holders of TVET certificate type C3 can pursue advanced TVET programs: two years for a TVET diploma and four years for a bachelor’s degree in TVET-specific disciplines. Those holding a TVET bachelor’s degree may also gain admission to a regular master’s program that is aligned with their TVET disciplines (Tao & Kao, 2023). TVET programs at both secondary and higher education levels are predominantly offered by institutions under the purview of the Ministry of Labor and Vocational Training (MoLVT) (Daroesman, 2022). Moreover, those who complete regular upper-secondary education can either progress to TVET programs at the higher education level or pursue mainstream higher education programs for regular qualifications such as associate, bachelor’s, master’s, and doctoral degrees. In Cambodia, higher education is offered by both public and private universities and institutions, with a significant majority under the supervision of MoEYS (Heng et al., 2023d; MoEYS, 2022).
In addition to the four major streams, RGC also offers non-formal education to school dropouts as well as adults in disadvantaged areas (No & Sok, 2022). This system is officially recognized as part of the country’s education framework (RGC, 2002). According to RGC (2002), non-formal education in Cambodia focuses on seven priorities: (a) functional literacy for youth and adults; (b) primary and lower secondary equivalency programs for out-of-school children, youth, and young adults; (c) short-term income generation skills training for youth and adults; (d) post-literacy programs that sustain and expand levels of literacy; (e) family education for early childhood development; (f) an integrated community-based learning approach; and (g) capacity building for effective management. Priorities one to five are program-specific, targeting specific populations, while the last two priorities focus on supporting the programs. The latest education congress report showed that seven non-formal education programs were implemented across the country, including vocational literacy, post-literacy, re-enrollment, primary school equivalency, lower secondary equivalency, and complementary education programs, benefiting 50,255 students (26,677 females) in the academic year 2021-2022 (MoEYS, 2023).
New developments in Cambodian education
Expansion of access to education
Access to education in Cambodia has significantly improved. Over the last few decades, there has been considerable expansion in terms of educational infrastructure and student enrollment. According to Tao and Kao (2023), about 93% of Cambodian school-age children attended primary school in 2021, although only 68.5% of children were enrolled in lower secondary school. Data from the 2022 Education Congress showed that, in the academic year 2021-2022, there were 1,812 public secondary schools and 323 private secondary schools in Cambodia (MoEYS, 2022). Moreover, across the country, only two districts had no high schools, and only 6.7% of the communes (or Sangkat) had no junior high schools. This suggests the availability of schools that can cater to the educational needs of Cambodian students.
In higher education, institutional expansion has also been a major development in the sub-sector. According to Un & Sok (2018), in the 1990s, Cambodia had fewer than 10 HEIs with around 10,000 students. In the early 2010s, the number of HEIs rose to around 100 (Heng et al., 2023c). At present, there are a total of 132 HEIs, 63.63% of which are privately owned institutions (MoEYS, 2023). Thus, over the last three decades, the number of HEIs has increased more than tenfold, from around 10 to 132. Student enrollment has also skyrocketed, from approximately 10,000 in the 1990s (Un & Sok, 2018) to approximately 200,000 in the academic year 2021-2022 (MoEYS, 2022). Despite the drastic increase, student enrollment has stabilized at approximately 200,000 over the last few years (Tao & Kao, 2023).
Improvement in teacher quality
There have been efforts to improve the quality of the teaching force, particularly at the general education level. These efforts include enhanced training curricula, lengthened training durations, improved training facilities and resources, and upgrading programs for in-service teachers and teacher educators (see MoEYS, 2022; No & Sok, 2022; Sot et al., 2019, 2022; UNESCO, 2023). What is worth highlighting is the upgrade of some teacher training centers (TTCs) by transforming them into teacher education colleges (TECs). So far, two TECs, including one in Phnom Penh and the other in Battambang province, have been established. These modernized TECs offer both primary and lower secondary pre-service teacher education through the enhanced 12+4 credit-based training curriculum – an upgrade from the previous 12+2 program – and also provide some approved in-service/CPD programs. These well-equipped TECs serve as a model of teacher education in the country, spearheaded by dynamic leadership and staffed by teacher educators who have been recruited through a rigorous process (Sot et al., 2022). This similar trend can also be observed in upper secondary pre-service teacher education at the National Institute of Education (NIE), particularly with the launch of the BA + 2 program, improved training facilities and resources, and enhanced teacher educator recruitment processes, among other initiatives. MoEYS, with support from the Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) and other international agencies, has also planned to upgrade other TTCs across the country into TECs.
Another commendable effort is the introduction of various upgrading programs for teachers, teacher educators, and school leaders, especially those at the secondary school level (Department of Teacher Training, 2022; Sot et al., 2019). Notable ones to date include the fast-track BA upgrading program at NIE, the teacher educator upgrading program at Khemarak University, the teacher upgrading program funded by the Capacity Development Partnership Fund Phase II, and teacher and leadership upgrading programs (TUP/LUP) at the Royal University of Phnom Penh (RUPP). According to MoEYS (2022), a total of 1,232 teachers from the third batch of the teacher upgrading program were supported to pursue their bachelor’s degrees at RUPP, while 432 school principals and education officers could also pursue their bachelor’s degrees at the same institution. Moreover, a multiple-year project known as the Strengthening Teacher Education Programmes in Cambodia (STEPCam), which is funded by the Global Partnership for Education (GPE), UNESCO, and MoEYS, has significantly contributed to teacher education reform in Cambodia. As of May 2023, the project has: (a) enabled nearly 94,000 teachers in Cambodia to access CPD opportunities, (b) successfully upgraded 67 teacher educators through the Bachelor of Education program, (c) trained 7,000 teachers and other education staff members on early-grade Khmer literacy and math materials, (d) trained 465 teacher educators on learner-driven and ICT-based pedagogical approaches, and (e) equipped 11 Provincial Teacher Training Centers (PTTCs) with science facilities and digital technologies (UNESCO, 2023).
Likewise, within the framework of the Higher Education Quality and Capacity Improvement Project (HEQCIP) and Higher Education Improvement Project (HEIP), many higher education staff and lecturers have been given the opportunity to upgrade their qualifications. Many of them were funded by HEQCIP to pursue their master’s degrees overseas, particularly in Australia, while HEIP has also sponsored a number of lecturers to pursue their master’s and doctoral degrees both in Cambodia and abroad. Data that could be accessed by the first author of this introductory chapter showed that, with the support of HEIP, approximately 50 people have been funded to pursue their master’s or PhD degrees.
Developments in higher education
In higher education, a number of noticeable developments can be observed. In addition to the institutional expansion and dramatic increase in student enrollment, a number of policies have been introduced (see Eam et al., 2022). In 2021, for example, MoEYS introduced the Higher Education Strategy 2021-2030, outlining the vision and objectives of the higher education sub-sector. The focus is on producing graduates with the skills that enable them to earn up to five times more than unskilled individuals and promoting action research that is aligned with socioeconomic development needs (MoEYS, 2021).
Despite the challenges posed by the COVID-19 pandemic, Cambodia’s higher education sector has experienced a phenomenon of digital transformation. Heng (2021) and Heng et al. (2023c) have argued that COVID-19 has ushered in digital transformation in Cambodian higher education, as evidenced by various developments during the pandemic. For example, there have been more opportunities for blended learning, online continuous professional development, and digital higher education (Heng et al., 2023c). COVID-19 has also offered opportunities for more collaboration and partnerships in higher education as well as better preparation for future crises (Heng & Sol, 2021).
According to MoEYS (2022), numerous achievements in higher education can be observed. They included the formulation and dissemination of a number of legal frameworks, regulations, and policies for higher education; the implementation of various research projects; and improvements in higher education governance through capacity building for higher education officials, among others. MoEYS (2023) also reported an increase in the number of female students enrolled in higher education, the number of Centers of Excellence, and the number of full-time staff holding PhD degrees, among others.
Persistent challenges to Cambodian education
Challenges to general education
Despite the new developments, there are challenges that have constrained the development of Cambodia’s education system. In general education, according to Heng and Sol (2022), key challenges included issues regarding teacher recruitment and supply, inadequacy in funding for school operations, a lack of CPD opportunities for teachers, and weak school management. Other issues that have received considerable scholarly attention are the prevalence of private tutoring in general education (Nhem & Kobakhidze, 2022), high dropout rates (Pov et al., 2022), students’ low achievements in major international tests like the Programme for International Student Assessment for Development (PISA-D) survey (MoEYS, 2018), and educational inequality (Marshall & Fukao, 2019), among other issues.
MoEYS (2022) stated that key challenges facing Cambodia’s primary education included a shortage of teachers in remote areas and an oversupply of teachers in urban areas, a lack of teacher capacity building, limited quality of teachers, inadequate technological infrastructure, and a lack of materials for sanitation promotion. In secondary education, the challenges were the limited quality of teachers, inadequate opportunities for practical experiences, a lack of science teachers and facilities that support STEM subjects, and a lack of qualified staff or experts in English, ICT, health education, and architecture.
Similarly, in its latest report that outlines the achievements, challenges, and future directions for Cambodia’s education system, MoEYS (2023) mentioned four key challenges to general education. They included (a) a lack of science and computer laboratories, libraries, and teaching materials; (b) a lack of qualified educational officials who can lead or live up to the education revolution; (c) inadequate cooperation and support from the private sector; and (d) limited dissemination of new curricula and teaching methods to teachers.
Challenges to higher education
In higher education, there are also many challenges that continue to shape the sub-sector. Heng et al. (2022a) highlighted some major challenges, including limited research engagement among Cambodian academics, a shortage of academics with PhDs, skills mismatches among university graduates, weak higher education stakeholder involvement, and fragmentation in higher education governance, among other challenges. Likewise, Heng and Sol (2022) mentioned three major challenges. They included skills mismatches as university graduates tended to lack sufficient skills to meet market demands, a lack of research activities among university lecturers, and fragmentation in higher education governance as more than ten ministries oversee HEIs in Cambodia.
Recent research by Heng and colleagues also highlighted these major challenges to higher education in Cambodia. For example, Heng and Sol (2023b) elaborated on the causes of skills mismatches in Cambodian higher education. They were limited higher education investment, insufficient stakeholder engagement in the sub-sector, the prevalent use of outdated curricula and teaching methods, limited English proficiency among high school graduates, a lack of career guidance for university students, and a lack of research engagement among Cambodian university lecturers. Heng et al. (2023a) also pointed out several challenges that prevented the improvement of quality in Cambodian higher education. They were related to the deficiency in educational infrastructure and resources, political influence on the sub-sector, weak institutional and sectoral governance, higher education privatization, low academic salaries, and few CPD opportunities for university teachers.
Un and Sok (2018) and Sok and Bunry (2023) have also discussed some challenges affecting Cambodian higher education. According to Un and Sok (2018), the challenges were related to various issues, including the limited quality and relevance of higher education; fragmented higher education governance; limited institutional autonomy, particularly in terms of personnel and financing; low higher education investment; and a lack of research involvement among academic staff. Sok and Bunry (2023) also highlighted some challenges concerning higher education quality and relevance, curriculum management and use of traditional teaching methods, limited CPD opportunities for lecturers, inequitable higher education access, institutional governance, and compliance enforcement, among other challenges.
Meanwhile, Rappleye and Un (2018) and Un (2023) considered the dependence on foreign donors as a key challenge. Rappleye and Un (2018), for instance, stated that the implementation of donor-driven policies or projects was not successful due to a few key issues, such as a lack of understanding of the Cambodian context by the donors like the World Bank and a lack of qualified Cambodian personnel to implement the projects. In addition, Vann and Ziguras (2017) underscored the detrimental impacts of political interference in the sub-sector, corruption, and a lack of a well-qualified quality assurance body (Vann & Ziguras, 2017).
MoEYS (2022) also identified a few challenges facing Cambodian higher education, including a lack of qualified human resources in the areas of research, information technology (IT), and data management; low higher education enrollment; limited internet connections on campuses, particularly in the provinces; and a lack of appropriate teaching and learning equipment. Likewise, MoEYS (2023) mentioned six challenges related to a low number of Cambodian academics with PhD degrees, a lack of qualified researchers, a lack of clear guidelines for university research, inadequate modern infrastructure, a lack of qualified personnel to manage the Cambodian cyber university network, and ineffective implementation of the internal quality assurance system.
Conclusion
Overall, Cambodia’s education system has been transformed over the years as a result of the concerted efforts by the Cambodian government and relevant stakeholders. New projects and initiatives aimed at improving both general and higher education have been implemented or will be introduced. However, some lingering issues require both scholarly and policy attention for substantial reform. As Sok and Bunry (2023) argued, there is an urgency to concentrate on key issues, such as national funding for higher education, performance monitoring and compliance enforcement, institutional autonomy and accountability, human resource management, quality assurance and accreditation, higher education access, and international collaboration in research and teaching.
MoEYS (2023) also outlined future directions for improving the quality of Cambodian education. In general education, the focus should be on improving the capacity of teachers and educational officers; expanding school-based management and scholarship programs; increasing school infrastructure (especially school buildings, laboratories, and libraries); enhancing teacher training programs for both primary and secondary schools; promoting public-private partnerships and cooperation; and improving mechanisms to disseminate the new curricula, teaching methods, and relevant teaching principles to teachers across the country. As for higher education, the future directions should center on investment in the capacity building for lecturers, researchers, and higher education managers or technicians; development of university research operational guidelines; infrastructure development; improvement in the internal quality assurance system and post-graduation monitoring system; and construction of dormitories to support disadvantaged and female students.
In light of the new developments, challenges, and future directions discussed above, we suggest that the Cambodian government, particularly MoEYS, and relevant stakeholders should intensify their collaborations to find innovative and practical ways or mechanisms to introduce more positive changes and developments to Cambodia’s education system to enhance the sector and ensure that Cambodian students, especially at the general and higher education levels, are equipped with the necessary knowledge, skills, and attitudes required to boost Cambodia’s competitiveness in the regional and global arena as well as support Cambodia’s vision for 2030 and 2050.
Organization of this book
This edited book contains 14 chapters. Following this introductory chapter that provides insights into key developments and challenges in Cambodia’s education system, the remaining 13 chapters are divided into three parts. Part I contains four chapters dealing with new and innovative approaches to teaching and learning. Part II consists of seven chapters focusing on various important issues in education, particularly in Cambodia. Part III has two chapters on technical and vocational education and training (TVET) and higher education in Cambodia.
Part 1: Innovations in teaching and learning
Part I has four chapters dealing with different approaches to teaching and learning. Chapter 2, contributed by Thearath Lim, discusses the benefits, challenges, and ways forward for problem-based learning. The author argues that this teaching strategy should be promoted in the Cambodian education context.
In Chapter 3, Thannarath Sim and Sereyrath Em examine the issues concerning blended learning in Cambodian higher education. The chapter focuses on the benefits and challenges of blended learning and discusses the challenges and suggestions for implementing blended learning in the Cambodian higher education setting.
Chapter 4 focuses on the challenges and ways forward for flipped classrooms in Cambodian higher education. In this chapter, Koem Hong Chat discusses five key challenges for implementing flipped classrooms and offers recommendations for concerned stakeholders to enhance the use of flipped classrooms in higher education in Cambodia.
In Chapter 5, Sokleang Touch discusses the concept of differentiated instruction. The chapter focuses on the benefits of this teaching strategy and offers ideas on how to use it before concluding with some recommendations for implementing differentiated instruction in English secondary school classrooms in Cambodia.
Part 2: Issues and challenges in education
Part II contains seven chapters. Chapter 6, contributed by Brak Dorn, examines the issues concerning parental involvement in primary education. Specifically, the chapter discusses the benefits, challenges, and suggestions for promoting parental involvement in children’s education.
Chapter 7 is about inclusive education, particularly for children with disabilities. In this chapter, Englalin Ek examines the efforts by concerned stakeholders in promoting inclusive education and discusses the key challenges and ways forward to promote inclusive education in the Cambodian context.
Chapter 8 deals with science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) education. In this chapter, Puthsereymony Vann discusses the recent progress in STEM education in Cambodia before elaborating on the challenges and providing a set of recommendations to enhance STEM education in Cambodia.
In Chapter 9, Muykim Lim explores an important topic concerning media literacy education. This chapter provides the definitions of media literacy education, discusses the importance of media literacy education, and offers suggestions for promoting media literacy education in Cambodia.
In Chapter 10, Kimcheng Ngel examines the issues of shallow education or private tutoring. The chapter focuses on various aspects concerning shadow education, including causes, benefits, problems, and solutions.
Chapter 11 delves into a sensitive topic, that is, corruption in general education in Cambodia. In this chapter, Molina Leng discusses the major causes and impacts of corruption in education. The author then offers a three-point solution to address this critical issue in Cambodia’s general education.
Chapter 12, contributed by Phallavattana Thon, concludes the second part of this edited volume. In this chapter, the author discusses an important topic in education: plagiarism. The chapter provides insights into the major causes, consequences, and recommendations for preventing plagiarism among university students.
Part 3: TVET and higher education in Cambodia
In Part III, there are two chapters. Chapter 13 is about TVET in Cambodia. In this chapter, Sovisal Khorn discusses the various roles of TVET before examining the challenges in improving TVET in Cambodia. The chapter concludes with a set of recommendations to promote a robust TVET system in Cambodia.
In Chapter 14, the final chapter of this edited book, Mern Phatt looks at the issues related to regulations, governance, and financing in Cambodian higher education. The chapter begins by providing a brief background of higher education in Cambodia before exploring the three topical issues concerning regulations, governance, and financing. The chapter offers some insights into the ways forward to enhance Cambodia’s higher education sector.
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